Enzyme stimulated by insulin. Insulin promotes transcription.
amino acids, glucose, GLP-1, Ach stimulate release..
E, NE, somatostatin, Growth hormone, glucocorticoids..
Autonomic control plays a minor role in insulin control, except during sympathetic activation.
Islets are richly innervated by both adrenergic and cholinergic nerves.
In general, any condition that activates the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system (such as hypoxia, hypoglycemia, exercise, hypothermia, surgery, or severe burns) suppresses the secretion of insulin by stimulation of α2 (Gi) adrenergic receptors.
Stimulation of α2 adrenergic receptors (Gi) inhibits insulin secretion..
a2 adrenergic receptor antagonists increase basal concentrations of insulin in plasma
B2(Gs) adrenergic receptor agonists increase insulin release..
However, liver gluconeogenesis is also increased and is the dominant effect. The end result is hyperglycemia.
β2 adrenergic receptor antagonists decrease insulin in plasma. However, there is an overall decreased glucose level in plasma, as b2 receptors on hepatocytes are also blocked from gluconeogenesis.
β2 (Gs) adrenergic receptor agonists and vagal nerve stimulation enhance release..
The effects on blood glucose levels are also determined by glycogenolysis in hepatocytes and gluconeogenesis in hepatocytes assisted by lipolysis in adipocytes..
Glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in hepatocytes is stimulated by beta-2 agonism via activation of glycogen phosphorylase kinase by epinephrine and glucagon (Gs).
Lipolysis is stimulated by activation of hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL) in adipocyte cytoplasm by epinephrine via the beta-3 agonism (Gs) and glucagon (Gs).
Glucagon increases urea production because amino acids are used for gluconeogenesis (stimulated by glucagon), and the resulting amino groups are incorporated into urea..
Uses:
Hypoglycemia..
Beta blocker overdose
Are of neuroendocrine origin..
Histology shows rosettes:..
.
Glucagonomas are glucagon-secreting neuroendocrine tumors of alpha cells in the pancreas.
Other symptoms:
.
Pancreatic neuroendocrine (islet cell) tumors that secrete vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP). The increased pancreatic secretions and increased GI relaxation result in severe diarrhea, which can in turn cause hypokalemia and achlorhydria.
VIPoma is also termed “WDHA syndrome” for
Aka zollinger ellison syndrome.
Excess production of HCl will cause recalcitrant gastric ulcers, duodenal ulcers, and chronic watery diarrhea. Other symptoms of ZES include epigastric pain, steatorrhea, and vomiting. Gastrin activates stomach parietal cells (which secrete HCl) and enterochromaffin-like cells (which secrete histamine).
Used to diagnosis gastrinoma. Indicates that gastrin levels remain elevated after the administration of secretin (normally inhibits gastrin release).